The establishment of the post of Ili General marked an important milestone in the Qing Dynasty—the last feudal dynasty in Chinese history—in its governance of Xinjiang. It played a vital role in strengthening China's northwestern frontier defense, resisting foreign aggression, maintaining social stability, preventing separatist activities and safeguarding national unity. Moreover, it enhanced solidarity among ethnic groups and created favorable conditions for their joint efforts in developing and building Xinjiang.

The historical background 

The Qing court established the post of Ili General in response to profound historical circumstances and pressing practical needs. Xinjiang had been formally included in China's territory as early as the Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 25) and had since been administered by later Chinese dynasties. However, by the early Qing period, the situation in the region had become increasingly complex and unstable. The Junggar regime emerged along the north of the Tianshan Mountains in the late Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), expanding rapidly and taking control of most parts of Xinjiang. Its leader, Galdan Boshugtu Khan, harbored grand ambitions to build a powerful nomadic empire. He not only confronted the Qing Dynasty but also allied himself with Tsarist Russia, posing a grave threat to China's northwestern frontier. 

To safeguard national unity and territorial integrity, Qing Emperor Kangxi personally led three military campaigns against Galdan. Although these campaigns dealt a severe blow to the Junggar separatist forces, they did not completely resolve the issue. Conflicts between the Junggar regime and the Qing Dynasty continued intermittently, lasting through the reign of Emperor Yongzheng (1722-1735) and into the Qianlong period (1735-1796).

In 1755, internal turmoil broke out within the Junggar regime. Seizing this favorable opportunity, Emperor Qianlong decisively dispatched troops, swiftly suppressing the Junggar rebellion and ending Junggar control of Xinjiang. However, just as one wave of unrest subsided, another arose. In 1757, Islamic Aktaglik Sect leaders Burhanidin and Hojajahan launched a rebellion, rallying a large number of followers, seizing numerous cities in south Xinjiang and committing widespread arson, murder and plunder, bringing severe suffering to the local population. Emperor Qianlong again dispatched a large army to Xinjiang. Under the command of General Zhaohui and other commanders, the Qing forces endured arduous campaigns and finally succeeded in suppressing the rebellion in 1759.

Although the rebellions in Xinjiang were suppressed, years of warfare had left the region devastated, with social order in disarray. Moreover, Xinjiang occupies a pivotal position on China's northwestern frontier, an important barrier for the Qing Dynasty against external powers such as Tsarist Russia. To strengthen governance over Xinjiang, consolidate the northwestern frontier, and prevent similar rebellions from occurring, the Qing court urgently needed to establish a unified and authoritative institution to oversee affairs in the region.

In 1762, the post of Ili General was established to exercise unified military and administrative jurisdiction over the regions both south and north of the Tianshan Mountains. Emperor Qianlong appointed Fucha Mingrui, the nephew of his primary consort Empress Fucha, as the first Ili General.

Integration and autonomy 

In terms of administration, the Ili General adapted policies attuned to local conditions and implemented different systems according to the specific circumstances of each region in Xinjiang.

In areas such as Urumqi, where the Han population was relatively large and connections with other parts of China were closer, the prefecture-county system was adopted and their administrators were appointed to manage local civil affairs. The administrative model was largely consistent with that of other regions of China.

In areas such as Hami and Turpan, where Mongolians, Kazaks and other nomadic peoples were concentrated, the existing Jasak system was maintained. Local tribal leaders were appointed Jasaks (governors) and were allowed to manage their own communities under the supervision of the Qing court, enjoying a certain degree of autonomy. The Jasaks were required to report regularly to the Ili General and were subject to the Qing authorities' evaluation, rewards and punishments.

In the areas south of the Tianshan Mountains, inhabited predominantly by Uygurs, the existing Baeg system was retained, but the powers of the Baegs (heads) were restricted and regulated. Baegs were appointed by the central government rather than inheriting their positions. They were responsible for managing local civil, judicial and tax affairs, but had to follow the orders and directives of the Ili General.

The Ili General also enlisted the local upper classes' help to convey the policies and directives of the central government and to stabilize the local situation.

To prevent these upper-class people from becoming too powerful and forming separatist forces, the Ili General imposed strict supervision and checks on them. Baegs were prohibited from holding office in their home localities, implementing a system of avoidance to prevent collusion with local interests. Supervisory institutions and officials were also established to monitor and evaluate their conduct, and any unlawful, improper or incompetent behavior by Baegs or other holders of power was met with immediate punishment.

Xinjiang was home to multiple ethnic groups and diverse religions, with considerable cultural differences. Successive Ili generals attached great importance to cultural integration as a means of maintaining stability and unity, and therefore adopted a series of measures to promote cultural exchange and integration. They respected each group's cultural traditions and religious beliefs, allowing them to preserve their customs and rituals without imposing uniformity. In handling ethnic and religious affairs, the generals adhered to principles of fairness and equality, striving to prevent conflict arising from cultural or religious differences.

The Qing court also established schools in Xinjiang to promote Confucian culture and Chinese language education, cultivating minority scholars versed in Confucian classics and Chinese. These individuals played key roles in fostering cultural exchange, spreading advanced ideas and promoting social progress. Meanwhile, art, culture and technology from the Central Plains, the heartland of ancient China, were introduced to Xinjiang, merging with local traditions to form a distinctive regional culture. For example, art forms from the Central Plains including traditional opera, painting and calligraphy were widely disseminated in Xinjiang and became popular among the local population, while Xinjiang's music, dance and acrobatics were introduced to the Central Plains, lending the region a new sense of cultural vitality. In terms of architecture, some cities and buildings in Xinjiang combined elements from both Central Plains and local styles, creating unique urban landscapes. Through such cultural integration, mutual understanding and recognition among ethnic groups deepened, laying a solid cultural foundation for long-term stability in Xinjiang.

Limitations 

From its establishment to its dissolution following the fall of the Qing Dynasty, the Ili General system played an essential role in maintaining national unity, consolidating the northwestern frontier and promoting economic development and cultural exchange in Xinjiang. It strengthened the Qing Dynasty's direct governance over the region and helped foster closer ties between Xinjiang and other parts of China.

The system achieved results in promoting cohabitation among different ethnic groups, respecting cultural traditions and fostering economic cooperation, laying the foundation for Xinjiang's multiethnic society and facilitating the initial realization of coexistence of different cultures. Nevertheless, its institutional design remained centered on separate rule over different ethnic groups to stabilize the frontier. It lacked institutional mechanisms for integration, falling short of achieving deep cultural and national identity integration. Consequently, the outcomes of ethnic integration can be characterized as "extensive interaction, orderly coexistence, limited fusion and group-based differences in the consciousness of national identity." This system represented a practical approach to frontier governance of the Qing court, rather than a completed form of ethnic integration in the modern sense.

In 1955, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region was established. The system of regional ethnic autonomy for ethnic minorities is a basic political system in China. Its most significant feature lies in fostering a strong sense of the Chinese nation as one community.

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